Реферат: History Outline Essay Research Paper Mrs S
Название: History Outline Essay Research Paper Mrs S Раздел: Топики по английскому языку Тип: реферат |
History Outline Essay, Research Paper Mrs. S Chris Johnson History 10-H November 14, 1999 History Outline A world of Progress and Reason ¨ Enlightenment grew out of the scientific revolution of the 1500?s and 1600?s ¨ Joseph Preistly and Antoine Lavoisier built framework for modern chemistry ¨ Edward Jenner developed a vaccine against smallpox ¨ Natural Laws ? Laws that govern human nature Two views of the social contract ¨ Thomas Hobbes and John Locke made ideas key to the Enlightenment ¨ Thomas Hobbes put ideas into his book, Leviathan ¨ He argued that people were naturally cruel, greedy, and selfish ¨ Thought life in a ?state of nature? would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short ¨ Hobbes supported the Stuart kings in struggle against parliament ¨ John Locke optimistic view of nature ¨ Thought people were basically reasonable and moral ¨ Believed that all people had Natural Rights ? rights that belonged to all humans from birth ¨ Theses rights included: right to life, liberty, and property ¨ Wrote Two Treatises of Government ¨ It said that people formed governments to protect their natural rights ¨ He rejected absolute monarchy ¨ Also believed that people had the right to overthrow the government Montesquieu?s spirit of the laws ¨ 1700?s France saw a flowering of enlightenment ¨ early and influential thinker was Baron de Montesquieu ¨ he studied the governments of Europe ¨ often gave sharp criticism of absolute monarchy ¨ wrote, The Spirit of the Laws ¨ discussed governments throughout history and complimented England?s monarchy ¨ his ideas of separation of powers and checks and balances in government were written into the constitution of the United States The world of the Philosophes ¨ Philosophes? which means ? lovers of wisdom? ¨ Most famous Philosophes was Francois-Marie Arouet who later took the name of Voltaire ¨ His outspoken attacks offended the government and the catholic church ¨ He was imprisoned and exiled ¨ Encyclopedia written by Denis Diderot ¨ Took 25 years to write the 28 volumes ¨ The purpose was to change the general way of thinking ¨ Included articles by leading thinkers of the day including Montesquieu and Voltaire ¨ Denounced slavery, praised freedom of expression, and argued education for all ¨ French government thought the book was an attack on public morals ¨ 20,000 copies were printed Rousseau: A controversial figure ¨ Most controversial Philosophe was Jean-Jacques Rousseau ¨ Believed people in ?natural state? were basically good ¨ Thought natural innocence was corrupted by the evils of society ¨ Set forth his ideas on government and society in The Social Contract ¨ Thought the individual should be subordinate to the community ¨ Hatred of political and economic oppression woven through out his works ¨ Helped fan the flames of revolt in centuries to come Limited Natural Rights for Women ¨ Women did have natural rights ¨ These rights were limited to the home and family ¨ Notion that women were by nature inferior to men ¨ Germaine deStael in France and Catherine Macauly and Mary Wollstonecraft in England argued that women had been excluded from the social contract itself ¨ Wollenstonecraft best known British female critic ¨ Accepted that a woman?s first duty was to be a good mother ¨ Felt that a woman should be able to decide what is in her own interest and should not be completely dependent on her husband ¨ She published, Vindication of the Rights of Woman ¨ Called for same education for girls and boys ¨ Argued only education can give women the tools to participate equally with men in public life New Economic thinking ¨ Physiocrats ? looked for Natural Laws to define a rational economic system ¨ Laissez faire ? allowed businesses to operate with little or no government interference ¨ Claimed that real wealth came from making the land more productive ¨ Extractive industries such as agriculture, mining, and logging produced new wealth ¨ Physiocrats supported free trade and wanted to lift all tariffs ¨ Adam Smith a British economist admired the physiocrats ¨ He argued that Free market ? natural forces of supply and demand, should be allowed to operate and regulate business ¨ A strong supporter of Laissez faire ¨ Believed that the marketplace was better off with out any government regulation ¨ However he did believe that the government had a duty to protect society, administer justice, and provide public works ¨ His ideas gained increasing influenced as the Industrial Revolution spread across Europe The challenge of new ideas ¨ The ideas of the enlightenment spread quickly through many levels of society ¨ Coffeehouses were often where people met to discuss new ideas ¨ Europeans had accepted without question a society based on divine right rule, a strict class system and a belief in heavenly reward for earthly suffering ¨ In the Age of Reason such ideas seemed unscientific and irrational ¨ Government and church authorities felt they had a sacred duty to defend the old order ¨ They waged a war of censorship, banning and burning books and imprisoning writers ¨ Writers like Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau sometimes disguised their ideas in works of fiction Salons ¨ Salons ? informal social gatherings ¨ Originated in 1600?s ¨ Noblewomen started the idea by inviting a few friends over to their homes for poetry readings ¨ Only the most witty, intelligent, and well-read people were invited to salons ¨ By 1700?s some middle class women began holding salons ¨ Gave middle class citizens the ability to meet with the nobility on an equal footing to discuss and spread enlightenment ideas. The Salon in the Rue Saint Honore ¨ Inspired from previous visits to Salons Madame Geoffrin eventually set up her own salon in the house on Rue Saint Honore ¨ She entertained poets and philosophers, artists and musicians ¨ On Mondays Geoffrin welcomed artists and musicians ¨ Wednesdays, philosophers and poets came for discussion ¨ Madame donated large sums of money to help support the Encyclopedia ¨ Visiting monarchs paid their respects at what came to be called the ?kingdom? of Rue Saint Honore ¨ Catherine 2nd of Russia and Maria Theresa of Austria often visited Enlightened Despots ¨ Some monarchs did accept enlightenment ideas ¨ They became Enlightened Despots ? absolute rulers who used their power to bring about social and political change ¨ Frederick the Great King of Prussia from 1740 ? 1786 saw himself as the ?the first servant of the state? with a duty to work for the common good ¨ He admired Voltaire tolerated religious differences welcoming victims of religious persecution ¨ His reforms were directed mainly at making the Prussian government more efficient ¨ Simplified laws ¨ Catherine the Great exchanged letters with Voltaire and Diderot ¨ Made limited reforms in law and government ¨ Spoke out against serfdom ¨ Allied herself with the Russian nobles ¨ Joseph 2nd Hapsburg emperor student of enlightenment ¨ Tried to improve the lives of peasants ¨ Chose talented middle class officials rather than nobles to head departments and impose a range of political and legal reforms ¨ Granted toleration to Protestant?s and Jews in his Catholic empire ¨ He also ended censorship ¨ Abolished serfdom The Arts and Literature ¨ Grand, complex style of art known as Baroque ¨ Baroque paintings were huge, colorful, and full of excitement ¨ They glorified historic battles or the lives of saints ¨ By 1700?s Rococo style was invented ¨ Rococo art was personal, refined, elegant, and charming ¨ Furniture and tapestries featured delicate shells and flower decorations ¨ Also included European versions of Chinese art ¨ Painters showed noble subjects in charming rural settings, surrounded by happy servants and pets ¨ Ballets and operas- plays set to music- were performed at royal courts ¨ Opera houses sprang up from Italy to England to amuse the paying public ¨ Johann Sebastian Bach wrote complex and beautiful religious works for organ and choirs ¨ George Frederick Handel wrote Water Music and other pieces for King George I ¨ His most celebrated work Messiah combines both instruments and choir ¨ Wolgang Amadeus Mozart was only 6 yr. old when he hit it big ¨ Although he was an instant celebrity he died in poverty at the age of 35 ¨ Daniel Defoe wrote Robinson Crusoe ¨ Samuel Richardson wrote Pamela Lives of the Majority ¨ Villages in Western Europe were relatively more prosperous than those in Eastern Europe ¨ In the west serfdom had largely disappeared ¨ Peasants worked their own patches of land ¨ Others were tenants of large land owners ¨ In Eastern Europe serfdom was firmly rooted ¨ Peasants bound to the land owed labor services to their lords and could be bought and sold with land ¨ In France, peasants still had to provide free labor ¨ In England, country squires had the right to hunt foxes across the plowed and planted fields of their tenants Global Expansion ¨ England?s location made it well placed to control trade during the Renaissance ¨ In the 1700?s Britain was generally on the winning side in European conflicts ¨ Treaty of Utrecht ? France was forced to give Britain Nova Scotia and Newfoundland ¨ England gained an monopoly in the slave trade in south America ¨ Slave trade brought enormous wealth to British merchants ¨ 1763 Treaty of Paris ? ended the seven years war. Gave Britain all of French Canada ¨ British east India company pushed the French out of India ¨ Britain had no large standing army instead it had a powerful navy ¨ England followed mercantilist policies ¨ 1707 Act of Union ? united Scotland and England in the United Kingdom of Great Britain ¨ United kingdom also included Wales ¨ England had controlled Ireland since the 1100?s ¨ Gave Protestant settlers title to Irish catholic lands Growth of Constitutional Government ¨ Three new political institutions arose in Britain: Political parties, the Cabinet, and the office of the prime minister ¨ Government whose power is defined and limited by law ? Constitutional Government ¨ British constitution is made up of all acts of parliament over the centuries ¨ Includes: Magna Carta, and bill of rights ¨ Two political parties emerged: Whigs and Tories ¨ Whigs ? backed liberal policies, reflected urban business interests, and supported religious toleration for Protestants. Whigs dominated the parliament in the 1700?s ¨ Tories – conservative landed aristocrats, sought to preserve old traditions, supported broad royal powers and a dominant Anglican church ¨ The two parties represented cliques among the rich powerful men ¨ Votes were often pooled to advance their common interests ¨ A handful of parliamentary advisors set policies they were called the cabinet ¨ Leader of the majority party in parliament and in time the chief official of the British government ? Prime Minister ¨ Robert Walpole considered Britain?s first Prime Minister Politics and society ¨ A government in which the ruling power belongs to a few people ? Oligarchy ¨ Highest nobles held seats in the house of lords ¨ Wealthy landowners controlled elections in house of commons ¨ The right to vote was limited to few male property owners ¨ Majority of society made a meager living from the land ¨ Landless families faced a harsh and desperate existence ¨ Middle class included successful merchants and manufactures ¨ George the 3rd tried to regain the crown?s powers to no avail many of his policies on America led to the American revolution The 13 English colonies ¨ By 1750 a string of 13 prosperous colonies stretched along the eastern coast of North America ¨ Part of Britain?s growing empire ¨ Busy centers of commerce ¨ 1600?s parliament had passed the Navigation Acts to regulate colonial trade and manufacturing ¨ colonies were home to diverse religions and ethnic groups Growing Discontent ¨ George III and his ministers thought that the colonists should help pay for the French Indian war. Britain began to enforce the long-neglected laws regulating colonial trade and parliament passed new laws to raise taxes from the colonies ¨ Colonists protested with, ?no taxation without representation? ¨ They believed since they had no say on parliament that they shouldn?t be taxed ¨ 1770 British soldiers opened fire on a protesting crowd killing 5 ¨ called the Boston Massacre ¨ 1773, a handful of colonists staged the Boston tea party throwing cargo of British tea of the ships and into the harbor to protest the new taxes on tea ¨ By April 1775 the crisis exploded into a war ¨ Colonial leaders met in a Continental Congress to decide what actions to take ¨ Congress setup a continental army with George Washington in command ¨ Following year the congress voted for independence and had Thomas Jefferson draft the Declaration of Independence ¨ The Declaration claimed that people had the right ?to alter or abolish? unjust government ¨ on July 4,1776 American leaders adopted the Declaration The American Revolution ¨ American cause looked bleak ¨ British held New York and Philadelphia, rebels controlled the country side. ¨ American trimuph over the British in Battle of Saratoga ¨ Convinced the French to join the Americans against it?s old rival, Britain ¨ Netherlands and spain soon added their support ¨ Washington forced the surrender of a British army at Yorktown ¨ Two years later American, British , and French negotiators signed the Treaty of Paris ¨ In it Britain recognized the independence of The United States of America ¨ It also accepted the new nation?s western frontier as the Mississippi river |