Сategory of number of nouns
Introduction
Number is the grammatical category of the noun which shows whether we speak of one thing or of more than one. The categoryof number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to its singular form.
Accordingly, there are two numbers: the singular and the plural.
The problem of category of number of nouns is very essential nowadays. Russian and English languages have different grammatical, syntactical and phonetic forms of expression. These languages have nouns which are used only in the singular, only in the plural and both in singular and plural. A lot of people in the process of communication make mistakes because they donтАЩt know rules and laws necessary for exact case.
The goal of the present work is to study the category of number of English nouns and compare it with the Russian ones.
Objectives of the present work:
1. To consider the category of number of nouns
2. To study different types of number
3. To analyze the formation and meaning of number
4. To study different cases of usage of category of number of nouns
5. To consider the development of plural forms in connection with a change of meaning of the noun
6. To study Russian category of number of nouns, different cases of usage
Practical significance of this work is that it can be used in educational establishments, at classes on theoretical and practical grammar. This work can be useful for students, studying English language.
The term-paper consists of content, introduction, three main chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix.
1. The Problem of Category of Number in Modern English
1.1 The Category of Number of Nouns
The categoryof number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to its singular form. The semantic difference of the oppositional members of the categoryof number in many linguistic works is treated traditionally: the meaning of the singular is interpretation as ВлoneВ» and the meaning of the plural as ВлmanyВ» (more than one).
As the traditional interpretation of the singular and the plural members does not work in many cases, recently the categorical meaning of the plural has been reconsidered and now it is interpreted as the denotation of Влthe potentially dismembering reflection of the structure of the referentВ».
The categoricaloppositionof number is subjected to the process of oppositional reduction. Neutralization takes place when countable nouns begin to function as Singularia Tantum nouns, denoting in such cases either abstract ideas or some mass material, e.g. on my birthday we always have goose; or when countable nouns are used in the function of the Absolute Plural: the board are not unanimous on the question. A stylistically marked transposition is achieved by the use of the descriptive uncountableplural (the fruitsof the toil are not always visible) and the Влrepetition pluralВ» (car after car rushed past me). In Modern English the form of the singular of nouns is a bare stem without any flexion or with zero inflexion. Nouns in plural are characterized by ending Вл-s (-es)В».
The meaning of number expresses by grammatical forms is extremely generalized. Concrete meanings of nouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals and grammatically through grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexion indicates one thing and the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion indicates more than one things.
The presence in language of such ways of expressing a generalized meaning of number must be considered as a result of a process of abstraction formed by the human thought for a long period of time. [1]
Modern English like most other languages distinguishes two numbers: singular and plural. The meaning of singular and plural seems to be self-explanatory, that is the opposition: one тАУ more than one. The essential meaning of the category (in nouns) is not that of quantity, but of discreteness. Concrete meanings of nouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals and grammatically through grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexion indicates one thing and the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion indicates more than one things.
1.2 Types of Number
a) Singular versus plural. In most languages with grammatical number, nouns, and sometimes other parts of speech, have two forms, the singular, for one instance of a concept, and the plural, for more than one instance. Usually, the singular is the unmarked form of a word, and the plural is obtained by inflecting the singular.
b) Collective versus singulative. Some languages differentiate between a basic form, the collective, which is indifferent in respect to number, and a more complicated derived form for single entities, the singulative. A rough example in English is ВлsnowflakeВ», which may be considered a singulative form of ВлsnowВ» (although English has no productive process of forming singulative nouns, and no singulative modifiers).
c) Dual number. The distinction between a ВлsingularВ» number (one) and a ВлpluralВ» number (more than one) found in English is not the only possible classification. Another one is ВлsingularВ» (one), ВлdualВ» (two) and ВлpluralВ» (more than two). Dual number existed in Proto-Indo-European. Many more modern Indo-European languages show residual traces of the dual, as in the English distinctions both versus all and better versus best.
d) Trial number. The trial number is a grammatical number referring to 'three items', in contrast to 'singular' (one item), 'dual' (two items), and 'plural' (four or more items). There is a hierarchy between number categories: No language distinguishes a trial unless having a dual, and no language has dual without a plural. English, along with the other Germanic languages and most Romance languages, uses the plural.
e) Distributive plural. Distributive plural number, for many instances viewed as independent individuals (e.g. in Navajo).
In most languages, the singular is formally unmarked, whereas the plural is marked in some way. Other languages, most notably the Bantu languages, mark both the singular and the plural, for instance Swahili (see example above). The third logical possibility, rarely found in languages, is unmarked plural contrasting with marked singular.
Elements marking number may appear on nouns and pronouns in dependent-marking languages or on verbs and adjectives in head-marking languages.
There are several types of number: singular versus plural, collective versus singulativ, dual number, trial number and distributive plural. But Modern English like most other languages distinguishes only two numbers: singular and plural
1.3 Meaning and Formation of Number
1.ВаВаВаВаВаВа In Modern English the singular form of the nouns is a bare stem with a zero-inflexion (нулевая флексия): book, boy, girl.
The plural is formed by the inflexion тАУ (e) s [z, s, iz]: boy тАУ boys, book тАУ books, box тАУ boxes.
Compare the Russian noun стол (столы) which also has a zero-inflexion in the nominative case of the singular, with the noun река (реки), which has a positive inflexion in the nominative case of the singular as well as of the plural.
The inflexion тАУ (e) s is a modification of the Old English plural inflexion тАУ as. In Old English there were several ways of forming the plural; the тАУ as inflexion which was used only with masculine nouns, later on in its modified form (-as>-es>-s) became the general inflexion of the plural of nouns.
The plural inflexion is pronounced [iz] after voiced consonants and vowels: cabs, raids, tables, pens, factories, tractors; [s] after voiceless consonants: books, pilots, pipes; [iz] after sibilants: classes, bushes, branches, boxes.
Note. тАУ Nouns ending in a mute тАУ e preceded by a sibilant, in spelling тАУ se, ce, тАУ ze, тАУ (d) ge, add the inflexion тАУ s [iz] horse тАУ horses; price тАУ prices; size тАУ sizes; bridge тАУ bridges: village тАУ villages.
2.ВаВаВаВаВаВа With some nouns the final voiceless consonant is changed into a corresponding voiced consonant before the inflexion тАУ es [z] is added. To this group belong:
a)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Nouns ending in тАУ fe or тАУ f [f]. The f is changed into v (consonant interchange), and the inflexion тАУ es [z] is added: knifeтАУknives; shelf тАУ shelves; wife тАУ wives.
Note. тАУ Some nouns ending in тАУ f or тАУ ff, simply add тАУ s [s] in the plural: roof тАУ roofs; chief тАУ chiefs; handkerchief тАУ handkerchiefs; cliff тАУ cliffs; cuff тАУ cuffs; muff тАУ muffs.
The following nouns have double forms: hoof тАУ hoofs, hooves; scarf тАУ scarfs, scarves.
b)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Some nouns ending in тАУ th [θ], change the θinto [3]: mouth [mauθ] тАУ mouths [mauθz]; path [pa:θ] тАУ paths [pa:θz]; bath [ba:θ] тАУ baths [ba:3z].
c)ВаВаВаВаВаВа The noun house [haus] тАУ houses ['hauziz].
Peculiarities of Spelling. Notice the following:
a) When a noun ends in тАУ y preceded by a consonantis replaced by тАУ i and the ending тАУ es [iz] is added: city тАУ cities; country тАУ countries; penny тАУ pennies (when a sum of money and not separate coins is meant the plural form pence is used: It costs five pence.But: Five pennieswere lying on the table).
b) When a noun ends in тАУ o with a preceding consonant, тАУ es [z] is usually added: hero тАУ heroes; NegroтАУNegroes; potato тАУ potatoes; tomato тАУ tomatoes. But: piano тАУ pianos; photo тАУ photos; zero тАУ zeros.
c) The plural of proper names and other parts of speech, figures, letters, etc. when substantivized, are sometimes written in the ordinary way, sometimes with an 's added:
The two Mary's or the two Marys(y remains unchanged). Mind your P's and Q's. Cross your t's and dot your i's. Don't use so many buts.
Oh, no, no, a thousand no's.[17]В»тАж Mr. Copperfield objected to my threesand fivesbeing too much alike each other, or to my putting curly tails to my sevens and nines,В» resumed my mother. [10]
3. Some nouns are survivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural:
a) By changing the root-vowel (vowel interchange): man тАУ men, woman тАУ women, foot тАУ feet, tooth тАУ teeth, goose тАУ geese, mouse тАУ mice;
b) By changing the root-vowel (vowel interchange) and adding the inflexion [en], in spelling тАУ en: child тАУ children; brother тАУ brethren.1
4. Plural of Compound Nouns.
a) In compound nouns usually the head-noun takes the plural form: fellow-worker тАУ fellow-workers; school-mate тАУ school-mates; air-raid тАУ air-raids; editor-in-chief тАУ editors-in-chief; brother-in-law тАУ brothers-in-law.
b)Compounds ending in тАУ man change тАУ man into тАУ men in spelling, but in pronunciation there is no difference between the singular and the plural: postman ['poustman] тАУ postmen ['poustman].
Such nouns as German, Roman, and Norman are not compounds. They form their plural in the usual way: Germans, Romans, Normans.
c) When the compound does not contain any noun, the plural is formed by adding тАУ s to the last word: forget-me-not тАУ forget-me-nots; merry-go-round (карусель) тАУ merry-go-rounds; hold-all (порт плед) тАУ hold-alls; overall тАУ overalls.
d)Compounds in тАУ fut add тАУ s to the end: handful тАУ handfuls; spoonful тАУ spoonfuls; but also: columns-full (in newspapers).
e) If a proper noun is preceded by a title, the sign of the plural is added either to the title or to the proper noun itself; in colloquial speech it is usual to add the тАУ s to the proper noun; in official speech the title is pluralized.
Colloquial: The two doctor Thompsons.The Miss SmithsOfficial: Messrs Jones. The MissesSmith.
The Miss Crumptons or to quote the authorities of the inscription on the garden-gate: The Misses Crumpton. [10]
f)ВаВаВаВаВаВа An adjectivized noun in attributive function is, as a rule, used in the singular even if the meaning is plural: a four-storey house, a five-act play, the printed-book section of a museum.
Itwas a three-milewalk along a dry white road, made whiter to-night by the light of the moon. [9]
There is, however, a growing tendency in recent times to use the plural form, especially in long official terms: a two-thirdsmajority; the food products department; the sportsgrounds; the United NationsOrganization; parcelspost.
Two powerful engines were pulling a goodstrain up the sharp inclineтАж [4]
Streams of people were pouring out from the SportsGroundтАж [4]
In many instances where the form in тАУ s is used it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Accordingly, the use of the apostrophe wavers:
a)ВаВаВаВаВаВа No apostrophe:
I enjoyed several hourssleep. There is twenty years difference in their age. I had only two shillingspocket money. A bridge of only two planks breadth.
b)ВаВаВаВаВаВа An apostrophe:
A five years' child. The Seven YearsтАЩWar. Atwo months' baby.
тАжit was a two-and-a half hours' drive. [21]
5. Plural Identical in Form With the Singular. тАУ Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural (either always or in certain combinations).
Those nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals.
The following nouns have one form for both singular and plural:
a)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Names of some animals: sheep, deer, swine:
тАж The sheep on the Downs lay quiet as stones. [21] 'Oh, Elizabeth, look, look! The deer!''тАжOh yes! How funny the little ones are! But how graceful!' [20]
b)ВаВаВаВаВаВа The noun fish and nouns denoting some sorts of fish, such as trout,cod, pike, salmon:
One day he caught a beautiful big fishтАж[11] In the water tiny fish swam between the olive growths of seaweedтАж [8] I know where trout are rising and where the salmonleap. [24]
To denote kinds of fish the form fishes is used:
There were many fishesin the net. She has bought a large book on our freshwater fishes. These pools swarm with a great variety of fishes.
c)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Names indicating number such as dozen, pair, couple, and score Ва(двадцать), when they are preceded by a numeral: two pairof gloves; five scoreof eggs; three dozen of shirts.
But the plural is also used:
HehadтАж two pairs of stockings in his bundle. [10]
Note.тАУ After many and few both formsare found: so many pairof wings, a great many pairsof gloves; a few score(s)of heads.
d)ВаВаВаВаВаВа We have survivals of the old uninflected plural in kind, sort, and manner. The usual construction is now to keep kind, sort, and manner unchanged, but to use the plural these (those) if the word following of is plural (these kindof tools). But this construction is by many considered grammatically incorrect and therefore in careful literary speech books of that kindare preferred to the colloquial those kindof books:
These kindsof pens. Such kind of duties. Those sort of speeches.
e)ВаВаВаВаВаВа The noun foot (measure of length) is feetin the plural. The plural foot is used when followed by a number indicating inches:
тАжI'm five footeleven in my socks. [2] And was she tall enough? Only five foot five. [21]
f) The noun pound (indicating money) has usually the s-plural except when followed by a numeral indicating shillings: two pounds, but: two poundten.
g) The nouns species and series borrowed from the Latin have also one form for both singular and plural:
A seriesof very, interesting experiments has been made in our laboratory. Two admirable seriesof the masters of Russian literature have been published recently. What a pretty species of roses! Many beautiful speciesof roses are cultivated in our garden.
6. Foreign Plurals. тАУ Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French or Greek) from which they have been borrowed:
Memorandum [am] тАУ memoranda [э]; datum [am] тАУ data [3]; phenomenon [an] тАУ phenomena [aj; crisis [iz] тАУ crises [i:zj; nucleus [ias] тАУ nuclei [iai]; terminus [as] тАУ termini [ai]; stimulus [as] тАУ stimuli [at]; formula [a] тАУ formulae [i:J; index тАУ indices [i:z].
Words that are much used often have an English plural: memorandums, formulas, indexes, terminuses.
In all countries thebroadest strataof the population have been mobilized in support of this great cause тАУ the preservation of peace.
Then the pied wind-flowers and the tulip tall, and narcissi,the fairest among them allтАж[22]тАж the rest of the house had grown, emerging here and there into small oasesof modernity. [21] Shelgrim wrote a few memorandaon his calendar pad, and signed a couple of letters before turning to Presley. [14]
Traditionally, the plural is formed by the inflexion тАУ (e) s, the singular form of the nouns is a bare stem with a zero-inflexion. According this there are several ways of the pronunciation of the inflexion тАУ (e) s at the end of the word, also there are several peculiarities in spelling. Some nouns are survivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural. In many instances where the form in тАУ s is used it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural. Some nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals. Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French or Greek) from which they have been borrowed.
1.4 Nouns Used in Both Numbers Singular and Plural
It is quite evident that only those nouns have both numbers (singular and plural) which denote things that can be counted, that is, things possessing a certain shape or having precise limits. Such nouns may be called countable or thing-nouns. To the group of nouns which have both numbers belong:
a)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Concrete nouns: a girl тАУ two girls; a book тАУ two books; a flower тАУ two flowers.
He took the loafback to the scullery. [15] Brown, crisp loavesstood on the hearth. [15] Flowers fell on her face, and she shut her eyesтАж One flower had remained tangled in her hair. [15]
b)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Abstract nouns: a day тАУ two days; an event тАУ two events; a task тАУ twotasks.
Captain Cuttle liked this idea very much. [10] A new generation is growing up in our midst, a generation actuated by new ideasand new principles. [11] It was a momentary thoughtтАж[10] Andrew went back to Christine that evening with his thoughtsin a maze. [23] I tried to shout but my voicewas not very loud. [13] Voicesand footstepswere heard in the passageтАж [19]
Nouns which have both numbers (countable) may be used with the indefinite article (in the singular) and associated with the pronouns some (in the singular or plural), many and few (in the plural):
A ringat the bell, repeated several times, roused him at last to go to the door. [21] What a nightto wander out in! [21] Towards the evening of the following dayтАжa letterarrived addressed to herself. [19] A, few early fallen oak-leaves strewed the terraceтАж [21] He had manyinvitations to dinner some of which he accepted. [7] Passing through a sort of porch made by two yew trees and someflowering-current bushes,the girl disappeared into the house. [21]
1.5 Pluralia Tantum and Singularia Tantum
The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The constant categorial feature Влquantitative structureВ» is directly connected with the variable feature ВлnumberВ», since uncountable nouns are treated grammatically as either singular or plural. Namely, the singular uncountable nouns are modified by the non-discrete quantifiers much or little, and they take the finite verb in the singular, while the plural uncountable nouns take the finite verb in the plural.
The two subclasses of uncountable nouns are usually referred to, respectively, as singularia tantum (only singular) and pluralia tantum (only plural). [27] The nouns which have only a plural and no singular are usually termed Влpluralia tantumВ» (which is the Latin for Влplural onlyВ»), and those which have only a singular and no plural are termed Влsingularia tantumВ» (the Latin for Влsingular only'') [26] In terms of oppositions we may say that in the formation of the two subclasses of uncountable nouns the number opposition is ВлconstantlyВ» (lexically) reduced either to the weak member (singularia tantum) or to the strong member (pluralia tantum).
Since the grammatical form of the uncountable nouns of the singularia tantum subclass is not excluded from the category of number, it stands to reason to speak of it as the ВлabsoluteВ» singular, as different from the ВлcorrelativeВ» or ВлcommonВ» singular of the countable nouns. The absolute singular excludes the use of the modifying numeral one, as well as the indefinite article. [27]
The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The nouns which have only a plural and no singular are usually termed Влpluralia tantumВ», and those which have only a singular and no plural are termed Влsingularia tantumВ».
1.6 Nouns Used Only in the Singular or Singularia Tantum
Nouns denoting things which have neither shape nor precise limits cannot be counted and therefore have no distinction between singular and plural; they are used only in the singular. Such nouns may be called uncountable or mass-nouns. To the group of nouns used only in the singular belong:
a)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Concrete nouns:
1.ВаВаВаВаВаВа Names of materials: water, milk, wine, snow, bread, air.
Onmy breakfast table there is a pot of honey.[21]тАж there was the cool sound of milkdropping into pailsтАж [21] We didn't take beeror wine.[11] Seizing inkand writing-paper,she began to writeтАж [21]
2.ВаВаВаВаВаВа Some collective nouns: foliage, leafage, shrubbery, brushwood, linen (белье), machinery, furniture:
Birds fluttered softly in the wet shrubberyтАж[21] He had chosen the furniturehimself. [21]тАж he took a narrow ride up through a dark bit of mixed timberwith heavy undergrowth.(Galsworthy.)
b)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Abstract nouns: friendship, joy patriotism, love, kindness, weather, courage, information, progress, etc.: There was agreat deal of confusionand laughter and noiseтАж [11] It was beautiful weather. (Lawrence.) At parting, my aunt gave me some good adviceтАж[10] A sudden tide of joywent leaping out of his heart. [11]
Nouns used only in the singular (uncountable) have no article where a noun which expresses both numbers (countable) would be associated with the indefinite article; they may be used with the pronouns what, some, much or little:
Perfect harvest weather;butoppressively stillтАж [21] Everyone gave him adviceтАж[11] Of course-this was good news.[7] ВлWhat delightful weather we are having!В» [20] What beauty, what stillness![21] He had anticipated much pleasurein this afternoon's readingтАж [9] ВлBut have some tea.I've just made it.В» [21]
Some collective nouns used only in the plural also belong to the group of uncountable such as: goods, sweepings, tidings, etc.
1.7 Nouns Used Only in the Plural
1. A number of nouns are used only in the form of the plural. With these nouns the plural does not indicate several objects but denotes a composite whole.
2. To the group of nouns which are used only in the plural form belong:
a)ВаВаВаВаВаВа The names of things which consist of two similar halves such as scissors, trousers, spectacles, scales (весы), eye-glasses, tongs (щипцы):
These scissors are sharp. Your spectacles are on the table. Your opera-glasses are very good.
b)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Nouns which have collective meaning (concrete or abstract):
1.ВаВаВаВаВаВа Concrete: stairs, goods, eaves, slums, outskirts, tropics, memoirs, victuals [vitlz] (провизия), supplies, clothes, sweepings, slops (помои), preserves (консервы), parings (кожура), sweets, lodgings (sometimes) lodging; but always board and lodging), etc.:
The car went smoothly and swiftly through the outer suburbsтАж[4] Beads of water still dripped from the eavesтАж [24] At last they reached the outskirtsof the forestтАж [15] ВлGot any lodgings тАУ ВлNo.В» [10] ВлCome, hand in eatables.В»[10] My clothes were my Sunday best. [2] ВлI say, can you let a lodging?В»[7]
2.ВаВаВаВаВаВа Abstract: holidays, tidings, goings-on (поступки), begin nings (also beginning), earnings, wages (often in the singular, especially in the following combinations: a living wage, a fixed wage, a minimum wage), contents, etc.:
She tried to adjust herself to her new surroundings.[4] These are indeed happy tidings.We get good wages. They spent their holidaysin the mountains. Bad beginningsmake good endings(первый блин комом). ВлWell,В» said Wardle, Влhere are pretty goings-onтАжВ» [10] He told me of some of his doings.[5]
3.ВаВаВаВаВаВа In some nouns the final тАУ s loses the meaning of the plural inflexion and the noun is treated as a singular. This is the case with the names of sciences and occupations in тАУ ics: mathematics, phonetics, optics, which are usually considered as singular:
Phoneticsis the science of sounds. Mathematicsis his strong point. Opticsis a branch of physics;it treats of light.
These nouns are treated as plurals when practical application is meant:
His phonetics areexcellent. The acousticsof this hall aregood.
Politics, tactics, gymnastics, athletics are generally regarded as plurals.
ВлThe only politicsI understand,В» answered Magnus sternly, Влare honest politics.В»[6]
4.ВаВаВаВаВаВа With some nouns the usage wavers, and the noun is treated either as a singular or as a plural:
The gas-worksis (are)situated on the river. Price's workswas small. [5] To-day we are going to visit a great smelting-worksтАж[6]
It should be noted that with regard to nouns used only in the plural the English and the Russian usage sometimes differ. Thus the noun opera-glasses is used in English only in the plural, whereas in Russian бинокль has both numbers. The noun сани is used in Russian only in the plural; in English sledge has both numbers. Other nouns are used in one language only in the plural, in the other тАУ only in the singular. Thus in Russian the noun сумерки is used only in the plural, whereas in English the noun twilight is used only in the singular.
1.8 Nouns Used in the Plural in a Special Sense
In some cases the plural form of the noun does not express were pluralities (as in tables = table + tableтАж) but acquires a special meaning. Very often the plural form, besides this specific meaning, may also retain the exact meaning of the singular thus resulting in two homonymous words:
colour = tint, colours = 1) plural of tint, 2) flag:
ВлI do not mean regimental colours,but the watercolours.В»[17]
custom = habit, customs = 1) plural of habit, 2) duties:
Many old customsare dying out. Customs(пошлины) are duties imposed by law on goods imported and exported.
pain = suffering, pains = I) plural of suffering, 2) effort:
She enlivened our journey by describing to usтАж the various pains she had in her back. [11] ВлI have examined AdeleтАж and find you have taken great painswith herтАж [2]
quarter = fourth part, quarters = 1) plural of fourth part, 2) lodgings:
I have read three quartersof the book. We found him ire his old quarters.
work = toil, labour; works in various senses: the works of a watch (механизм часов), works of art, etc.
1.9 Double Plural Forms
Some nouns have double plurals used with some difference of meaning:
f 1) brothers (sons of oneВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа mother) brother тАУ y 2) brethren (members of one community)
J 1) geniuses (men of genius) genius ^ 2) genii (spirits)
f 1) pennies (number of coins) penny тАУ y 2) pence (amount of pennies in value)
(1) staffs (military staffs [штаб], staffs [штат] of an staff institution)
I 2) staves (sticks)
II) cloths (kinds of cloth) cloth тАУ clothes (articles of dress)
J I) indexes (tables of contents) index тАУ indices (in mathematics)
2. The Development or Loss of Plural Forms in Connection with a Change or Variation of Meaning of the Noun
1. A number of nouns in English which are used only in the singular (uncountable) may through a change or variation of meaning acquire the forms of both numbers, singular and plural (and thus become countable). This is found in the following instances:
a)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Material nouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable) express numbers, singular and plural (countable), when they denote different sorts:
ВлThis is avery rare and most delicious wine.[10] There are many different wineson this list. The teas (tobaccos)of this plantation are of a very good quality. We produce high quality steels.
Note.тАУ When a material noun serves to denote an object made of that material, it becomes a class-noun and may be used in both numbers:
Give me a glass (two glasses) of water. I have bought a new iron(two-new irons). A copper, two coppers(медная монета, медяк).
b)ВаВаВаВаВаВа The noun hair is used in the singular (волосы); a hair is used only with the meaning of a few separate hairs (волосок, волоски):
тАжthis girl's hairwas chestnut, almost auburn. [6] She has a few grey hairs.She has more hairthan wit, and more faults than hairs. (Shakespeare.)
c)ВаВаВаВаВаВа The noun fruit is used in the singular. The plural form fruitsdenotes different kinds of fruit:
The fruitis not yet ripe. We have much fruit this year.
But: The fruitswere local, consisting of apples, pears, nuts, and such other products of the summerтАж [9]
The plural form fruit is also used when the meaning is figurative:
Fruitsof the workers' toil are buried in the strong coffers of a few. (The International.) The rich fruits of the heroic labour of Soviet people are visible from all corners of the earth, and they are an inspiration to the citizens of other countries advancing along the path of Socialism.
d)ВаВаВаВаВаВа Abstract nouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable), taken in a general sense, acquire both numbers (and thus become countable) when they express concrete instances or special aspects of the notion which they denote:
It has been such a joyto see you and Holly. [21]тАж he sympathized with their joys and grieves;[5]
тАжnow I remembered that the real world was wide, and that a varied field of hopes and fears,of sensationsand excitements,awaited those who had courage to go forth into its expense to seek real knowledge of life amidst its perils.[2]тАж May.night had fallen soft and warm, enwrapping with its grape bloom colour and its scents the billion caprices, intrigues, passions, longings, and regretsof men and women. [21] Little Sharp, with her secret griefs,was the heroine of the day. [1] When sorrows come, they come, not single spies, but in battalions. [1]
Note. тАУ When such nouns as beauty, youth, etc. do not denote abstract qualities but people characterized by those qualities, they become class-nouns and are used in both numbers (like countable nouns): a beauty (красавица), a youth (юноша);
This girl is a real beauty. The youths were marching with red banners-Some abstract nouns are used in English only in the singular (uncountable), whereas in Russian the corresponding nouns are used in both numbers (countable): information, news, business, advice, work (работа), progress (успех), and others: ВлWhat sort of workdid you do?"[4] ВлYou always give me good adviceтАжВ»[10] ВлThis newshas shaken me, Eliot.В» [20] She is making splendid progress in English.
To indicate concrete instances of advice, information, etc., the words piece or item are used:
You tell them one or two items of news.[11] ВлIt is a very strange piece ofbusiness!В» IaddedтАж [2]В»тАж I'd like to give you a little piece of advice.В» [24] She gave me one piece of intelligence,which affected me very muchтАж [10]
2. Sometimes material nouns and abstract nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force:
The frozen snows of the Arctic; thesands of the Sahara Desert; the blue waters of the Mediterranean Sea; a thousand thanks;a thousand pities.
The thundersbellowed over the wild waste of waters, and were echoed and prolonged by the mountain waves. [13]
ВлThanks. A thousand and one thanks.[19] Far off, rising in an immense slopeтАжEtna soars towards the heavens, sending from the summit, on which the snowsstill linger, a steady plume of ivory smoke. [13]В»тАж it would be a thousand pitiesto throw away such a chance of fun.В» [2] Far belowтАжI heard the Влunseen tumbling of the waters.[23] ВлA thousand pardons?В»[10] At sleepy intervals the surf flung its foam across the sandsto the grassтАж [7]
3. A number of nouns which express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of meaning are used only in the singular (thus becoming uncountable). This is the case:
a)ВаВаВаВаВаВа When the name of an animal is used to denote its flesh used as food:
A fat brown goose lay at one end of the tableтАж [11] (a countable noun) тАУ While Gabriel and Miss Daly exchanged plates of goose and plates of ham and spiced beef, Lily went from guest to guestтАж [11] (an uncountable noun) Two white swans came majestically byтАж [21] (a countable noun) ВлI have n-never eaten roast swan b-before,В» I stammeredтАж [24] (an uncountable noun)
b)ВаВаВаВаВаВа When the names of trees are used to indicate the corresponding kind of wood as material or as live plants:
And among the oaksthe bluebells stood in pools of azureтАж [22] (a countable noun) тАУ ВлOakВ»,he exclaimed. ВлAll carved oak,right up the ceilingтАжВ» [11] (an uncountable noun)тАж beautiful woods of birch, fir,and pinecast their shadows through the carriage window as we speed along. [19] (an uncountable noun)тАж a narrow strip of larchand beechтАжstretched out towards the valleyтАж [21] (uncountable nouns)тАж I come into alane, which winds upwards between grassy slopes toтАж woods of noble beech. [21] (an uncountable noun)
c)ВаВаВаВаВаВа When the nouns tree, bush, twig, etc. do not indicate separate objects but an indivisible whole (compare with the meaning of such nouns as leafage, blossom, brushwood, also with the Russian листва, цвет, кустарник тАУ собирательные существительные):
It (the tree) was covered with young blossoms,pink and twhiteтАж; and on this entire blossom!The sunlight glistened. [21] (1. a countable noun; 2. an uncountable noun) тАУ тАж the may-flower,both pink and white, was in full bloom. [21] (a countable noun)тАж an old orchard of apple-trees just breaking into flower,stretched down to a stream and a long wild meadow. [21] (an uncountable noun)тАж a few gold leavesare still hangingтАж [21] (a countable noun) The apple-tree was in leaf,and all but in flowerтАУ its crimson buds just bursting. [7] (uncountable nouns) In that early spring a few budswere showing already. [7] (a countable noun) тАУ He leaned against one of the satin-smooth stems, under the lacery of twigand bud. [7] (uncountable nouns)
d) When the name of an object is used to denote substance, that is, when it becomes the name of a material:
The summits of these vast mountains were enveloped in cloudsтАж[1] (a countable noun)тАж the sky was lined with a uniform sheet of dripping cloudтАж[9] (an uncountable noun) GemmyтАж presently returned with an eggbeaten up in milk. [22] (a countable noun) тАУ Eggis on your coat, (an uncountable noun) A load that lay on Hood's mind like a rock suddenly rose like an eagleтАж [9] (a countable noun) тАУ Grass ceases to grow, and the track is almost lost to view among piles of loose slate rock.[20] (an uncountable noun)
The plural forms developed (some of them lose) in connection with a change of meaning of the noun. The cases are following: a number of nouns in English which are used only in the singular may through a change or variation of meaning acquire the forms of both numbers, singular and plural, sometimes material nouns and abstract nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force, a number of nouns which express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of meaning are used only in the singular.
3. Modes and means of expression grammatical meaning of number in Russian language
The categories of number form one opposition тАУ singular and plural. Russian language hasnтАЩt special forms, which express only meaning of number. Six cases forms express each of two meaning of number. Forms of case тАУ it simultaneously forms of gender and nouns.
Compare: sing. тАУ лес, леса, лесу, лес, лесом, о лесе; pl. тАУ леса, лесов, лесам, леса, лесами, о лесах1.
The inflexion of nouns emerges as indicator of number express simultaneously grammatical meaning of gender (singular) and case.
In separate groups of name of nouns opposite singular and plural number express with the help of suffixes тАУ я, тАУ овья, тАУ ec, which is additional grammatical means, because it emerge together with the inflexion: зять тАУ зя[тя], князь тАУ кня[зя], сын тАУ сын-о[вья], небо тАУ неб-ес-а,тАж
In nouns with compound suffix тАУ ан/ин (-ян/ин), чан/чин, which express meaning together with inflexion, in plural this suffix is absent and meaning of number express only with the help of inflexion: граждан/ин/Ø тАУ граждан/е, северян/ин/Ø тАУ северян/е,тАж
In names of animalsтАЩ baby singular number express with the help of suffix тАУ онок (-енок), which in plural interchange with suffix тАУ ат-а (-ят-а): буйволёнок тАУ буйволята, скворчонок тАУ скворчата, страусёнок тАУ страусятатАж
Correlations in the names of children meet seldom: казачонок тАУ казачата, батрачонок тАУ батрачата, барчонок тАУ барчата. In the names of mushrooms more seldom: опёнок тАУ опята, маслёнок тАУ маслята.
Interchange consonants and transference of stress used for generated of form of number by way of additional means.
Compare: 1) друг тАУ дру[зья] (г-з'); ухо тАУ уши (х-ш); клин тАУ клинья (н-н'). 2) место-места, местам, местами, о местах.
In such a way, meaning of number express syntactically, that is to say with the help of inner resources of word: inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress. Used more analytical means тАУ forms agreement.
Compare: забавный лисёнок тАУ забавные лисята, моё ухо тАУ мои уши, летит гусь тАУ летят гуси.
Just analytically (syntactically) express the category of number тАУ indeclinable nouns, which havenтАЩt their inflexion.
Compare: красивое кашне тАУ красивые кашне, кафе закрыто тАУ все кафе были закрыты. Separate words have suppletive forms of number: человек тАУ люди, ребёнок тАУ дети.
Figurative used forms of the category of nouns.
Used form of singular number meet often in the meaning of plural number. Example: Речь идет о настоятельной необходимости создать для детей новую, советскую, социалистическую популярно-научную и художественно яркую книгу. В поездке мы встретились с широким массовым зрителем наших национальных республик.
Forms of plural number in the meaning of singular used in oral speech (в университетах не учился, институтов не кончал) it is have in view one university and one institute.
3.1 Nouns Used Only in the Singular
Nouns which have only singularform and not used in plural belong to a group ВлSingularia TantumВ». They are:
1. Uncountable nouns of material, substance (oil, butter, milk, sugar, water, petroleum, steel, copper, wood, ice, goldтАж) In plural such nouns denote different sorts of material. When denoting a certain object they may have both singular and plural.
2. Collective nouns (youth, the students, spruce forest)
3. Abstract nouns (whiteness, cleanness, laziness, kindness, thinness, enthusiasm, rush, mowing, walking, heat, dampness, thawтАж)
4. Proper names. These words get plural form if they used nominally or denote group of people which have the same surname (gender of Tolstoy).
Proper names denoting unique objects (sun, moonтАж)
Some abstract nouns are used in English only in the singular whereas in Russian the corresponding nouns are used in both numbers (information, advice, news, knowledgeтАж) ВлThis news is pleasantВ» To indicate concrete instances of information or advice the words ВлpieceВ», ВлitemВ» are used ВлIt was the most interesting item of informationВ»
3.2 Nouns Used Only in the Plural
Nouns which have only plural form and not used in singular belong to a group ВлPlularia TantumВ». They are:
1. The names of things which consist of two similar halves Ва(scissors, trousers, spectacles, scales (весы), eye-glasses, tongs (щипцы), gatesтАж) ВлYour spectacles are on the tableВ»
2. The names of some games (chees, hide-and-seek, blind manтАЩs buffтАж)
3. Denotation of some distance (holidays, day, workdays, twilightтАж)
4. The names of some mass of substance (pasta, perfume, ink, yeastтАж)
5. Proper names which connected with first collective meaning (Alps, CarpathiansтАж)
The categories of number form one opposition тАУ singular and plural. Russian language hasnтАЩt special forms, which express only meaning of number. Forms of case тАУ it simultaneously forms of gender and nouns. Meaning of number express syntactically, that is to say with the help of inner resources of word: inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress. If we compare the category of number in English and Russian, Russian noun, as well as English nouns, can be subdivided into groups тАУ nouns used only in the singular (uncountable nouns of material, substance; collective nouns; abstract nouns; proper names) and nouns used only in the plural (the names of things which consist of two similar halves; the names of some games; denotation of some distance; the names of some mass of substance; proper names which connected with first collective meaning.
Conclusion
Modern English like most other languages distinguishes two numbers: singular and plural. The meaning of singular and plural seems to be self-explanatory, that is the opposition: one тАУ more than one. The essential meaning of the category (in nouns) is not that of quantity, but of discreteness. Concrete meanings of nouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals and grammatically through grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexion indicates one thing and the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion indicates more than one things. There are several types of number: singular versus plural, collective versus singulativ, dual number, trial number and distributive plural. As has already been mentioned Modern English like most other languages distinguishes only two numbers: singular and plural. A zero inflexion indicates one thing and the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion indicates more than one things. In Modern English the form of the singular of nouns is a bare stem without any flexion or with zero inflexion. Nouns in plural are characterized by ending Вл-s (-es)В». According this there are several ways of the pronunciation of the inflexion тАУ (e) s at the end of the word, also there are several peculiarities in spelling. Some nouns are survivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural. In many instances where the form in тАУ s is used it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural. Some nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals. Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French or Greek) from which they have been borrowed. The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The nouns which have only a plural and no singular are usually termed Влpluralia tantumВ», and those which have only a singular and no plural are termed Влsingularia tantumВ». In some cases the plural form of the noun does not express were pluralities but acquire a special meaning, some nouns have double plurals used with some difference of meaning. The plural forms developed (some of them lose) in connection with a change of meaning of the noun. The cases are following: a number of nouns in English which are used only in the singular may through a change or variation of meaning acquire the forms of both numbers, singular and plural, sometimes material nouns and abstract nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force, a number of nouns which express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of meaning are used only in the singular. As for category of number Russian nouns тАУ Russian language hasnтАЩt special forms, which express only meaning of number. Forms of case тАУ it simultaneously forms of gender and nouns. Meaning of number express syntactically, that is to say with the help of inner resources of word: inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress. If we compare the category of number in English and Russian, Russian noun, as well as English nouns, can be subdivided into groups тАУ nouns used only in the singular (uncountable nouns of material, substance; collective nouns; abstract nouns; proper names) and nouns used only in the plural (the names of things which consist of two similar halves; the names of some games; denotation of some distance; the names of some mass of substance; proper names which connected with first collective meaning).
Bibliography
1. Allen W.S. Living English Structure. тАУ Longmans, 1960.
2. Beard, R. (1992) Number. In W. Bright (ed.) International Encyclopedia of Linguistics.
3. Corbett, G. (2000). Number. Cambridge University Press.
4. Croft, William. 1993. ВлA noun is a noun is a noun тАУ or is it? Some reflections on the universality of semantics.В» Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics SocietyВ» Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society.
5. Eckersley С E. and Eckersley J.M. A Comprehensive English Grammar For Foreign Students. тАУ Longmans, 1966.
6. Francis W.N. The Structure of American English. тАУ New York, 1958.
7. Fries Ch. С and LadoR. English Sentence Patterns.-The U-y of Michigan Press.
8. Greenberg, Joseph H. (1972) Numeral classifiers and substantival number: Problems in the genesis of a linguistic type.
9. Hornby A.S. The Teaching of Structural Words and Patterns. тАУ Oxford University Press, 1959.
10. Jespersen 0. Essentials of English Grammar. тАУ Allen and Unwin, 1953.
11. Joos Martin. The English Verb. тАУ The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison and Milwaukee, 1964.
12. Kelly B. An Advanced English Course for Foreign Students. тАУ Longmans, 1962.
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